A Detailed Guide to Flower Arrangements in China Throughout History

Chinese flower arrangement boasts one of the world’s longest and most sophisticated histories, spanning over three thousand years of development. From ancient ritual offerings to the refined tastes of literati scholars, from imperial court splendor to Zen minimalist aesthetics, Chinese flower arrangement profoundly reflects the philosophical thought, aesthetic sensibilities, and social transformations of Chinese civilization. Chinese flower arrangement is not merely a decorative art but a vehicle for cultural expression, moral cultivation, and spiritual pursuit.

Prehistoric and Ancient Periods (c. 5000 BCE – 221 BCE)

Neolithic Floral Worship

Archaeological evidence reveals that the Chinese relationship with flowers dates back to the Neolithic period. At Yangshao culture (c. 5000-3000 BCE) and Longshan culture (c. 3000-2000 BCE) sites, painted pottery decorated with plant motifs has been discovered, indicating that early Chinese people already possessed aesthetic awareness of plant forms.

Ritual Use: Early floral use was primarily associated with primitive religion and ritual activities. Historical texts like the Rites of Zhou record that sacrificial rituals during the Shang and Zhou periods employed aromatic plants and flowers to honor spirits and ancestors.

Shang and Zhou Periods (c. 1600 BCE – 256 BCE)

Bronze Vessels and Flowers: Bronze vessels from the Shang and Zhou periods feature abundant plant decorations, including lotus flowers, chrysanthemums, and various vine patterns. These ornamentations demonstrate the society’s emphasis on plant beauty, though true flower arrangement art had not yet formed an independent system.

Flowers in the Book of Songs: As China’s earliest collection of poetry, the Book of Songs (c. 11th-6th century BCE) mentions nearly a hundred species of plants, reflecting the people’s rich knowledge of flowers:

• “The peach tree is young and elegant, brilliant are its flowers”—describing the beauty of peach blossoms
• “He gathers daylilies there, not seeing him for one day is like three months”—daily plant gathering activities
• “The reeds are luxuriant, white dew turns to frost”—reeds and seasonal change

These poems show that flowers had deeply permeated daily life and emotional expression.

Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods (770 BCE – 221 BCE)

Formation of Philosophical Foundations: This period established important philosophical thought that would influence later flower arrangement:

Daoist Natural Philosophy: Laozi’s “Dao follows nature” and Zhuangzi’s “Heaven and Earth possess great beauty without speaking” established aesthetic principles of respecting natural essence. This thought later became the theoretical foundation for Chinese flower arrangement’s pursuit of naturalness and opposition to excessive artificiality.

Confucian Symbolic System: Confucius proposed “Orchids grow in deep forests, their fragrance unchanged by absence of people,” anthropomorphizing plants. This initiated the establishment of China’s floral symbolic system, paving the way for later concepts like “gentlemanly flowers.”

Qu Yuan and the Aromatic Plant Tradition: Qu Yuan extensively used aromatic plant imagery in his Li Sao, such as “In the morning I drink magnolia’s fallen dew, at dusk I dine on autumn chrysanthemum’s petals,” linking flowers and plants with personal virtue and political ideals, profoundly influencing literati attitudes toward flowers in subsequent ages.

Emergence of Gardens: During the Warring States period, aristocrats began constructing private gardens and planting ornamental flowers and trees. This provided the material foundation for flower arrangement’s transition from purely religious use to aesthetic appreciation.

Qin and Han Periods (221 BCE – 220 CE)

Qin Dynasty (221 BCE – 206 BCE)

Though brief, the unified Qin empire laid the foundation for later cultural exchange. Emperor Qin Shi Huang planted numerous exotic flowers and trees in Epang Palace and Mount Li Palace, initiating the tradition of large-scale imperial garden construction.

Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)

The Han Dynasty was an important developmental period for Chinese floral culture, with flower appreciation quite common among court and aristocratic circles.

Court Floral Culture:

• Shanglin Park: The expanded Shanglin Park under Emperor Wu of Han planted rare flowers and trees from throughout the nation, “rare trees and exotic plants, none not completely planted”
• Greenhouse Technology: The Book of Han records that the Han Dynasty already possessed greenhouse cultivation technology, called “greenhouse halls,” which could cultivate flowers in winter—one of the world’s earliest greenhouse records
• Floral Offerings: Court sacrifices and banquets used abundant fresh flowers for decoration; Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital records the court “adorned with flowers”

Influence of Buddhism’s Arrival:

Buddhism was introduced to China during the Eastern Han period (c. 1st century CE), bringing India’s flower-offering tradition. Temples began featuring special “flower offerings,” typically using lotus flowers, mandarins, and other Buddhist symbolic flowers. This religious flower offering merged with indigenous sacrificial flowers, enriching Chinese floral culture’s content.

Flowers in Literature:

Han Dynasty fu poetry extensively depicted flowers, such as Sima Xiangru’s Shanglin Fu with its detailed descriptions of various flowers and trees, showing deep understanding of plant classification and characteristics.

Folk Customs:

• Wearing Flowers Custom: Han Dynasty women popularized wearing fresh flowers, especially during festivals and celebrations
• Giving Flowers to Express Feelings: Han Dynasty yuefu poetry contains abundant content about giving flowers to express emotions
• Medicinal and Aromatic Uses: Flowers’ practical functions (medicinal, aromatic) and ornamental functions held equal importance

Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties Period (220 – 589 CE)

This was a period of political division but cultural prosperity in Chinese history, with floral culture achieving important development.

Wei-Jin Period (220 – 420 CE)

Metaphysics and Floral Aesthetics:

With the rise of Wei-Jin metaphysics, literati scholars pursued a spiritual realm transcending the mundane. This trend profoundly influenced floral aesthetics:

• “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove” Reclusive Spirit: Ji Kang, Ruan Ji, and others found emotional sustenance in mountains, waters, flowers, and trees, linking flower appreciation with personality liberation and spiritual freedom
• Pure Conversation Culture: Literati gatherings often featured flowers as topics, discussing the character of flowers, forming a trend of flower evaluation
• “Flower Ranking” Concept Emerges: Flowers began to be classified by moral character level, laying the foundation for later flower ranking systems

Tao Yuanming and Chrysanthemum Culture:

Tao Yuanming’s (365-427 CE) “Picking chrysanthemums by the eastern fence, leisurely seeing the southern mountains” established the chrysanthemum’s status as a symbol of reclusion and purity. His influence made chrysanthemums one of the most revered flowers among literati, beginning the tradition of being called “Four Gentlemen” along with plum, orchid, and bamboo.

Development of Buddhist Art:

During the Northern and Southern Dynasties period, Buddhist art flourished; cave complexes like Dunhuang, Yungang, and Longmen featured abundant images of donors holding lotus flowers and celestial maidens scattering flowers. These artworks show that Buddhist flower offerings had developed fixed iconography and symbolic systems.

Development of Flower Containers:

During this period, ceramic crafts advanced, with more vases, plates, and jars suitable for flower arrangement emerging. The development of celadon provided quality containers for later flower arrangement.

Northern and Southern Dynasties Period (420 – 589 CE)

Southern Dynasties’ Luxurious Floral Culture:

The Southern Dynasties (especially the Liang Dynasty) court was extravagant, with flower appreciation becoming an important part of aristocratic life:

• Emperor Wu of Liang constructed “Fragrant Forest Garden,” extensively planting exotic flowers and plants
• Court banquets required floral decorations; History of the Southern Dynasties records “imperial feasts must display flowers and fruits”
• Women popularized “floral ornaments,” pasting flower petals on foreheads

Literati Flower Evaluation:

Southern Dynasties literati began systematically evaluating flowers. History of the Southern Dynasties: Wang Sengqian Biography records that Wang Sengqian excelled at flower evaluation and could distinguish subtle differences in flowers, showing that flower appreciation had become a scholarly discipline.

Northern Dynasties’ Practical Tradition:

Compared to Southern Dynasties’ aestheticization, the Northern Dynasties (especially Northern Wei and Northern Zhou) emphasized flowers’ practical functions, including medicinal, culinary, and ritual uses, maintaining a relatively simple tradition.

Sui and Tang Periods (589 – 907 CE)

The Sui and Tang periods were the first golden age of Chinese floral culture, with flower arrangement art formally becoming an independent artistic category.

Sui Dynasty (589 – 618 CE)

Though brief, Sui Dynasty’s unification brought North-South cultural exchange, laying the foundation for Tang Dynasty floral culture prosperity. Emperor Yang of Sui constructed Western Garden in Luoyang, planting exotic flowers and trees from various regions on an unprecedented scale.

Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE)

The Tang Dynasty’s national strength was powerful, economy prosperous, and culture open, with floral culture reaching unprecedented heights.

Court Floral Culture Prosperity:

Imperial Gardens:

• Tang imperial palaces had specialized “flower rooms” and “flower workshops” managed by dedicated officials
• Chang’an’s “Hibiscus Garden” and “Huaqing Pool” and other imperial gardens planted abundant ornamental flowers
• The court established “flower master” positions, specifically responsible for flower cultivation and arrangement

Formal Formation of Flower Arrangement Art:

Tang Dynasty flower arrangement developed from simple floral display into an art form with rules and aesthetic pursuits:

1. Specialization of Containers:
   • Tang sancai (three-color), Yue kiln celadon, Xing kiln white porcelain, and other high-quality ceramics provided exquisite containers for flower arrangement
   • Specially designed flower vases, flower pots, and flower baskets emerged
   • Old Book of Tang records the court had “gold and silver flower vessels” and “jade flower vases” and other luxurious containers
2. Development of Arrangement Techniques:
   • Attention began to be paid to flower material selection, trimming, and matching
   • Emphasis on high-low variation and density balance
   • Attention to color matching and fragrance harmony
3. Diversification of Arrangement Occasions:
   • Court banquets, temple offerings, literati gatherings, and folk festivals all used flower arrangements
   • Different occasions had different flower arrangement styles and requirements

Rise of Peony Culture:

Tang Dynasty peonies became the “King of Flowers,” pursued by all of society:

• Wu Zetian and Peonies: Legend says Wu Zetian ordered all flowers to bloom in winter; only peonies refused and were banished to Luoyang, where they instead flourished magnificently
• “Luoyang Peonies Are the World’s Best”: Luoyang became the peony cultivation center; annual spring peony viewing became a grand event
• “Viewing Flowers in Chang’an”: Flower viewing activities in Tang capital Chang’an were extremely popular; Bai Juyi’s poem “Flowers bloom and fall for twenty days, the whole city’s people are mad with joy” depicts the grand spectacle
• Peony Varieties: The Tang Dynasty cultivated multiple peony varieties in red, white, purple, yellow, and other colors

Flourishing of Literati Flower Poetry:

Tang poetry contains abundant flower poems, reflecting all social strata’s love for flowers:

• Li Bai: “Clouds think of clothes, flowers think of faces” (praising peonies)
• Du Fu: “A cluster of peach blossoms opens masterless, lovely deep red or light red?”
• Bai Juyi: Abundant flower poems like Peony Fragrance, Cherishing Peony Flowers, etc.
• Li Shangyin: “The banana won’t unfold, the lilac knots, both facing spring wind with their own sorrows”
• Du Mu: “Stopping the carriage to sit and love the maple forest at dusk, frost leaves redder than February flowers”

Institutionalization of Buddhist Flower Offerings:

Tang Dynasty Buddhism flourished; temple flower offerings formed a complete system:

• “Six Offerings” Tradition: Incense, flowers, lamps, ointments, fruits, music—flower offerings were an important item
• Specialized Flower Monks: Large temples had specialized monks responsible for flower offerings
• Flower Offering Rituals: Fixed flower offering procedures and rules formed, including flower material selection, arrangement methods, offering positions, etc.
• Lotus Offerings: Lotus flowers became the most important offering flowers due to their Buddhist symbolic meaning

Folk Floral Customs:

• Festival Flowers: Lantern Festival, Shangsi Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, etc., all had specific floral customs
• Flower Wearing Tradition: Tang Dynasty men and women both popularized wearing flowers; especially after passing imperial examinations, “parading streets wearing flowers” became customary
• Emergence of Flower Markets: Large cities like Chang’an and Luoyang saw specialized flower markets emerge
• “Flower Morning Festival”: The 15th day of the second lunar month was designated as all flowers’ birthday, becoming an important folk festival

Emergence of Flower Arrangement Theory:

Though the Tang Dynasty did not yet produce systematic flower arrangement theoretical works, literati poetry and prose began discussing principles and aesthetic standards of flower arrangement:

• Emphasizing “elegance” rather than “extravagance”
• Valuing flowers’ natural posture
• Paying attention to coordination with environment
• Noting seasonal appropriateness

Basic Characteristics of Tang Dynasty Flower Arrangement:

1. Magnificent Splendor: Court style pursued grandeur, used abundant flowers, rich colors
2. Natural Vitality: Despite magnificence, still pursued natural flower material posture
3. Emphasis on Fragrance: Flower selection often considered fragrance, paying attention to fragrance harmony
4. Exquisite Containers: Used exquisite ceramic, metal, jade, and other material containers
5. Strong Seasonality: Strictly selected flower materials according to season

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms and Song Dynasty (907 – 1279 CE)

The Song Dynasty was the second and highest golden age of Chinese floral culture; flower arrangement art reached extreme refinement and maturity.

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907 – 979 CE)

During this brief period of division, the Jiangnan region (especially Southern Tang) floral culture continued to develop:

• Southern Tang Emperor Li Yu was a famous flower lover, with many flower-praising famous lines in his poetry
• “Carved railings and jade steps should still be there, only rosy faces have changed” expressed feelings about flowers and life
• Five Dynasties painting art developed; numerous bird-and-flower painting masters emerged, such as Huang Quan and Xu Xi

Northern Song Period (960 – 1127 CE)

Northern Song was the peak period of Chinese flower arrangement art; both theory and practice reached extremely high levels.

Systematization of Flower Arrangement Theory:

The Song Dynasty saw multiple flower arrangement monographs appear, marking the maturity of flower arrangement theory:

“Vase Flower Manual” (Pinghua Pu) (written by Zhang Qiande, actually a Ming work but carrying on Northern Song tradition) recorded basic principles of flower arrangement:

• “Flower arrangement should not be too busy, nor too sparse”
• “Flowers should be sparse not dense”
• “Vessels should be elegant not vulgar”

“Vase History” (Pingshi) (written by Yuan Hongdao, Ming Dynasty but summarizing Song tradition) proposed the “flower ranking” concept:

• Classified flowers into nine ranks and twelve categories
• Proposed the importance of “flowers harmonizing with vessels”
• Emphasized “changing with time” and “adapting to place”

Song Dynasty Literati Flower Arrangement Aesthetics:

Northern Song literati developed an extremely refined flower arrangement aesthetic system:

Pursuit of “Li” (principle):

• Influenced by Neo-Confucianism, pursued embodiment of “Heavenly Principle” in flower arrangement
• Emphasized flower materials’ natural principle, opposed artificiality
• Pursued the realm of “though made by humans, seemingly naturally formed”

Emphasis on “Yun” (charm):

• Valued flower arrangement’s mood and charm
• Not just seeking formal resemblance but more seeking spiritual resemblance
• Emphasizing subtlety, gracefulness, and elegant refinement

Aesthetics of “Jian” (simplicity):

• Song Dynasty flower arrangement’s greatest characteristic was “simplicity”
• Commonly used single branches or a few branches
• “One branch alone in excellence” became a典型 style
• Blank space became an important aesthetic principle

Popularity of Vase Flowers:

Song Dynasty “vase flowers” became the mainstream form of flower arrangement:

1. Container Characteristics:
   • Extensively used porcelain vases; Song Dynasty’s Five Great Kilns (Ru, Guan, Ge, Jun, Ding) products became famous flower arrangement vessels
   • Vase shapes mainly featured narrow necks, small mouths, and long bodies, suitable for few-branch arrangements
   • Emphasized pure glaze colors and elegant shapes
2. Arrangement Locations:
   • Study was the primary display location
   • Often arranged alongside qin, chess, calligraphy, and painting, becoming a literati passion beyond the “Four Arts”
   • Buddhist halls and guest rooms also commonly displayed vase flowers
3. Flower Material Selection:
   • Plum, orchid, chrysanthemum, bamboo, and other “gentlemanly” flowers were most revered
   • Extremely strong seasonality; “timeliness” was an important principle
   • Valued branches’ linear beauty and postural beauty

Court Flower Arrangement:

Northern Song court flower arrangement continued Tang Dynasty tradition but became more refined:

• “Flower Arts Bureau”: The court established specialized agencies to manage floral affairs
• Imperial Flower Garden: Planted abundant rare flowers for court use
• Banquet Decoration: Major banquets featured meticulously designed floral arrangements; Eastern Capital Dream Record detailed court banquet floral decoration scenes

Maturation of Plum Blossom Culture:

During the Northern Song period, plum blossoms became famous flowers alongside peonies:

• Lin Bu’s “Plum Wife, Crane Sons”: Lin Bu lived in seclusion on West Lake’s Solitary Hill, planting plum and raising cranes; “Sparse shadows slant across clear shallow water, dark fragrance floats in moonlight at dusk” became an eternal plum-praising famous line
• Plum Evaluation: Specialized plum evaluation works appeared
• Plum Exploring Gatherings: Literati agreeing to explore plum blossoms in late winter and early spring became fashionable
• Ink Plum Painting School: Plum blossoms became an important painting subject

Flourishing of Flower-Viewing Gatherings:

Song Dynasty literati gatherings often featured flower viewing as the theme:

• “Western Garden Gathering”: Famous gathering of Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, and other literati
• “Luoyang Flower Festival”: Luoyang’s annual spring large-scale flower-viewing activity
• “Plum Exploring” and “Chrysanthemum Viewing”: Seasonal flower viewing became fixed social activities

Integration of Flower Arrangement with Other Arts:

• Integration with Tea Ceremony: Flower arrangements on tea tables became important elements
• Integration with Incense Ceremony: Flower arrangements often accompanied incense burning, emphasizing “appropriate flower fragrance”
• Integration with Painting: Literati often used flower arrangements as painting subjects; flower arrangement and bird-and-flower painting mutually influenced each other

Popularization of Folk Flower Arrangement:

Song Dynasty urban economy prospered; flower arrangement spread from aristocratic exclusivity to citizen classes:

• Flower Market Prosperity: Eastern Capital Dream Record records Kaifeng flower market’s “four seasons rare flowers and unusual fruits”
• Festival Flowers: Lantern Festival, Qingming Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, etc., all had flower arrangement customs
• Wedding and Funeral Flowers: Systematic wedding and funeral floral etiquette formed

Southern Song Period (1127 – 1279 CE)

Southern Song established its capital in Lin’an (modern Hangzhou); the Jiangnan region’s floral culture continued to develop:

Chan Buddhism and Flower Arrangement:

Southern Song period Chan Buddhism flourished, profoundly influencing flower arrangement aesthetics:

• Extreme Minimalist Aesthetics: Chan concept “one flower, one world” pursued extremely simple arrangements
• “Unintentional Willow Planting”: Emphasized natural, unintentional beauty
• “Creating Something from Nothing”: Used blank space to create imaginative space
• Chan Temple Flower Arrangement: Temples developed unique flower offering styles, influencing later Japanese flower arrangement

Literati Painting and Flower Arrangement:

Southern Song literati painting flourished; “expressive” spirit influenced flower arrangement:

• Pursued charm rather than formal resemblance
• Emphasized mood and emotional expression
• “Yi” (untrammeled) character became the highest pursuit

Seasonal Flower Activities:

Southern Song literati detailed records of seasonal flower activities:

• Spring: Plum, peach, apricot, cherry, peony, herbaceous peony
• Summer: Lotus, pomegranate, gardenia, jasmine
• Autumn: Osmanthus, chrysanthemum, hibiscus, amaranth
• Winter: Narcissus, camellia, wintersweet

“Dream Record of Lin’an” and “Old Affairs of Wulin”:

These Southern Song notes detailed Lin’an’s floral culture:

• Urban flower market prosperity
• Various flower-viewing activities
• Popularization of flowers in daily life

Historical Position of Song Dynasty Flower Arrangement:

Song Dynasty flower arrangement established the basic aesthetic principles of Chinese flower arrangement art, its influence continuing to the present:

1. Minimalist Aesthetics: “Less is more” aesthetic concept
2. Literati Taste: Elevated flower arrangement as a path to spiritual cultivation
3. Theoretical System: Established systematic flower arrangement theory
4. Mature Techniques: Formed complete flower arrangement technique system
5. Social Popularization: Flower arrangement moved from aristocracy to all of society

Song Dynasty flower arrangement also had a decisive influence on the formation of Japanese flower arrangement. Japanese monks and envoys brought Song Dynasty flower arrangement concepts and techniques back to Japan, directly giving birth to Japanese flower arrangement during the Muromachi period.

Yuan Dynasty (1279 – 1368 CE)

The Yuan Dynasty’s Mongol rule brought cultural disruption, but Han Chinese literati still maintained traditional floral culture.

Literati Perseverance:

Yuan Dynasty Han Chinese literati mostly refused to serve the Yuan, finding emotional sustenance in mountains, waters, flowers, and trees:

• Zhao Mengfu: Preserved floral culture tradition through painting
• Ni Zan: Lived in seclusion in mountains and forests, growing flowers for pleasure, pursuing lofty detachment
• “Four Masters of Yuan”: Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Zan, and Wang Meng all depicted flowers in paintings, preserving Song Dynasty aesthetic spirit

Transmission by Buddhist and Daoist Temples:

Yuan Dynasty government favored religion; temples became preservers of traditional culture:

• Temples continued to maintain flower offering traditions
• Daoist temple flower cultivation and arrangement were also prevalent

Continuation of Folk Customs:

Despite upper-level cultural impact, folk floral customs were basically maintained:

• Festival flower customs continued
• Wedding and funeral flower etiquette maintained
• Flower markets continued to exist

Silence of Flower Arrangement Theory:

The Yuan Dynasty basically produced no new flower arrangement theoretical works, mainly continuing Song Dynasty tradition.

Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE)

Ming Dynasty flower arrangement culture revived, reaching a new peak in the late Ming period.

Early to Mid-Ming (1368 – 1500 CE)

Revival and Reconstruction:

Early Ming devoted itself to restoring Han Chinese traditional culture:

• The court restored complete floral etiquette systems
• Official compilation of Yongle Encyclopedia collected abundant floral literature
• Folk floral activities resumed prosperity

Development of Garden Art:

Ming Dynasty private gardens flourished, providing venues for floral culture:

• Suzhou gardens reached their peak, becoming important backgrounds for flower arrangement
• Floral arrangements in gardens emphasized four-season scenery
• “Garden flower arrangement” became a unique style

Mid to Late Ming (1500 – 1644 CE)

This was the golden period of Ming Dynasty floral culture, especially the late Ming period (1570s-1644).

Maturation of Flower Arrangement Theory:

The Ming Dynasty saw the most important theoretical works in Chinese flower arrangement history appear:

“Vase Flower Manual” (Pinghua Pu) (written by Zhang Qiande, 1595): This was China’s first systematic flower arrangement monograph, comprehensively discussing all aspects of flower arrangement:

1. Ranking: Classified flowers into nine ranks
   • First rank: Orchid, plum, peony, narcissus, etc.
   • Ninth rank: Cockscomb, balsam, etc.
2. Vessels: Discussed flower arrangement containers
   • “Ancient bronze vessels buried in earth for many years, deeply affected by earth qi, used to nourish flowers, flower colors are fresh and bright as on branches”
   • Detailed discussion of advantages and disadvantages of various material containers
3. Water Selection: Emphasized water use
   • Rainwater, spring water, well water each had suitable occasions
   • Discussed water quality’s effect on flower preservation
4. Appropriate Matching: Emphasized flower and vessel pairing
   • Different flower materials matched with different vessels
   • Attention to proportion and color coordination
5. Avoiding Vulgarity: Criticized vulgar flower arrangement methods
   • Opposed “piling up” and “extravagance”
   • Emphasized the importance of “elegance”
6. Flower Reverence: Discussed how to extend flower life
   • Various preservation techniques
   • Special treatment methods for different flowers
7. Washing: Discussed flower cleaning
   • How to wash flower materials
   • Keeping flower vessels clean
8. Commanding: How to arrange flower material positions
   • Host-guest, high-low, front-back arrangement
   • “Flowers in vases are like people’s clothing and caps”

“Vase History” (Pingshi) (written by Yuan Hongdao, 1599): This was another extremely important flower arrangement theoretical work, full of literati sensibility and philosophical reflection:

1. Flower Catalog: Classified flower ranks
   • “Prime Minister” level: Peony
   • “General” level: Herbaceous peony
   • “Recluse” level: Orchid, plum
   • Detailed enumeration of various flowers’ character and status
2. Ranking: Standards for judging flower superiority
   • “Plum wins by charm, is high in character”
   • “Orchid by pure fragrance”
   • Emphasized flowers’ spiritual temperament
3. Vessels: Discussed flower arrangement container selection
   • “Should be ancient not modern”
   • “Should be simple not ornate”
   • Advocated using bronze vessels and ancient porcelain
4. Water Selection: Discussed water quality selection
   • “Nourishing flowers with rainwater and snow water is best”
   • Detailed description of various water quality characteristics
5. Appropriate Matching: Flower material and vessel pairing
   • “Peach suits deep purple porcelain, plum suits Guan and Ge kilns”
   • Detailed discussion of various pairing principles
6. Flower Reverence: Methods for extending flower life
   • “Soak their roots in honey, or burn their roots”
   • Various preservation secrets
7. Warnings: Errors to avoid in flower arrangement
   • “Avoid excess,” “avoid disorder,” “avoid vulgarity”
   • Criticized vulgar flower arrangement methods
8. Good Affairs: Elegant matters of flower arrangement
   • When is flower arrangement most appropriate
   • Best environment for flower arrangement
9. Pure Appreciation: How to appreciate flower arrangements
   • “Flowers value purity above all”
   • Appreciation realm and methods
10. Other: Various flower arrangement miscellaneous discussions
    • Relationships between flowers and seasons, weather
    • Flower arrangement and life philosophy

“Kao Pan Yu Shi” (written by Tu Long, c. 1590s): This work’s “Three Discussions on Vase Flowers” was also important flower arrangement theory:

• Emphasized “pure,” “elegant,” and “secluded”
• Discussed principles of study flower arrangement
• Proposed the concept “vase flowers are like people’s clothing and caps”

Late Ming Literati Flower Arrangement Practice:

Late Ming was the peak of Chinese literati flower arrangement art:

“Gongan School” Literati:

• Yuan Hongdao and Yuan Zhongdao brothers: Not only wrote but personally practiced flower arrangement
• Recorded abundant flower arrangement examples and insights
• Closely integrated flower arrangement with literati lifestyle

“Jingling School” Literati:

• Zhong Xing, Tan Yuanchun, and others were also flower arrangement masters
• Pursued “secluded and cold,” “solitary and steep” aesthetics

“Dong Qichang Circle”:

• Dong Qichang and his friends integrated flower arrangement with calligraphy, painting, and connoisseurship
• Pursued lofty and transcendent realm

Characteristics of Ming Dynasty Flower Arrangement:

1. Literati Orientation Reached Extreme:
   • Flower arrangement became an important component of literati cultivation
   • “Qin, chess, calligraphy, painting, poetry, wine, flowers, tea”—flowers listed among “Eight Literati Elegances”
   • Flower arrangement closely integrated with poetry, prose, calligraphy, and painting
2. Complete Theoretical System:
   • Systematically discussed all aspects of flower arrangement
   • Established complete aesthetic standards
   • Formed unique flower evaluation system
3. Rich and Varied Techniques:
   • “Pinning,” “hanging,” “caging,” “inserting,” and other multiple techniques
   • Invented “sa” (flower holders/frogs for fixing stems)
   • Various techniques for extending flower life
4. Clear Aesthetic Pursuits:
   • Pure: Fresh, refined, lofty
   • Elegant: Noble, graceful, refined
   • Secluded: Quiet, profound, mysterious
   • Sparse: Open, light, not dense
   • Lean: Lean and strong, wiry, not fat
5. Extremely Strong Seasonality:
   • Strictly selected flowers according to season
   • “Timeliness” was a basic principle
   • Detailed records of appropriate flower materials for each season
6. Spatial Consciousness:
   • Valued blank space
   • Emphasized “spirited vitality”
   • Pursued “pictorial meaning” and “poetic realm”

Ming Dynasty Flower Monographs:

Besides flower arrangement theory, the Ming Dynasty saw abundant flower monographs appear:

• “Compendium of Fragrant Flowers” (Qunfang Pu) (written by Wang Xiangj

in): Encyclopedia-style flower work

• “Flower Mirror” (Huajing) (written by Chen Haozi): Discussed both horticulture and flower arrangement
• “Treatise on Superfluous Things” (Zhangwu Zhi) (written by Wen Zhenheng): Discussed literati elegant taste, with abundant flower arrangement content
• “Three Discussions on Vase Flowers” (written by Tu Long): Specialized flower arrangement theory
• Various single-flower monographs: Peony Manual, Chrysanthemum Manual, Plum Manual, Orchid Manual, etc.

Ming Dynasty Court Flowers:

Ming Dynasty court maintained rich floral culture:

• Imperial Flower Garden: Multiple flower gardens within the Forbidden City
• Flower Supply: Specialized agencies responsible for flower supply
• Festival Flowers: Various holidays had prescribed floral arrangements
• Flower-Viewing Activities: Emperors often held flower-viewing banquets

Ming Dynasty Folk Floral Culture:

Mid-to-late Ming commodity economy was developed; floral culture became more popularized:

• Flower Market Prosperity:
  • Cities like Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou had prosperous flower markets
  • Sights and Sounds of the Imperial Capital detailed records of Beijing flower market’s grand spectacle
  • Year-round flower supply
• Development of Flower Cultivation Industry:
  • Professional flower farmers and flower merchants emerged
  • Flower varieties greatly enriched
  • Cultivation techniques improved
• Festival Flower Customs:
  • Lantern Festival: Playing with flower lanterns, viewing flowers
  • Qingming Festival: Inserting willow branches, wearing flowers
  • Dragon Boat Festival: Inserting calamus and mugwort
  • Mid-Autumn Festival: Appreciating osmanthus
  • Double Ninth Festival: Inserting dogwood, viewing chrysanthemums
• Wedding and Funeral Flower Etiquette:
  • Wedding flower use standardized
  • Funeral flower use became institutionalized

Ming Dynasty Flower Arrangement and Painting:

Ming Dynasty bird-and-flower painting and flower arrangement mutually influenced:

• Xu Wei: Expressive flowers influenced flower arrangement’s pursuit of “interest”
• Chen Chun: Meticulous flowers influenced flower arrangement’s attention to “form”
• Wen Zhengming, Tang Yin, and others: Used flower arrangements as painting subjects
• Many painters were also flower arrangement masters

Ming Dynasty Flower Arrangement and Gardens:

Ming Dynasty garden art matured, integrating with flower arrangement:

• Floral arrangements in gardens
• Indoor-outdoor flower arrangement coordination
• Garden techniques like borrowed scenery and framed views applied to flower arrangement

Social Functions of Ming Dynasty Flower Arrangement:

1. Spiritual Cultivation: Literati cultivated character through flower arrangement
2. Social Medium: Elegant gatherings to appreciate flowers became important social activities
3. Life Beautification: Ordinary people also used flower arrangements to adorn living spaces
4. Religious Rituals: Temple and Daoist temple flower offerings
5. Festival Decoration: Floral arrangements for various holidays and celebrations

Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912 CE)

The early Qing Dynasty inherited Ming traditions; the mid-to-late period gradually declined but still maintained considerable standards.

Early to Mid-Qing (1644 – 1840 CE)

Floral Culture of the Kangxi-Qianlong Prosperity:

The early Qing Dynasty’s national strength was powerful; floral culture continued to develop:

Court Flowers:

• Yuanmingyuan: Had famous floral landscapes like the “Ten Thousand Flower Maze”
• Summer Palace: Planted abundant precious flowers
• Imperial Flower Garden: Maintained Ming Dynasty traditions with meticulous management

Continuation of Literati Flower Arrangement:

Qing Dynasty literati basically continued Ming Dynasty tradition:

• Shitao, Bada Shanren: Chan-inspired arrangements, extremely simple style
• “Eight Eccentrics of Yangzhou”: Zheng Banqiao, Jin Nong, and others expressed floral spirit through painting, influencing flower arrangement aesthetics
• Yuan Mei: Suiyuan Poetry Talks contained abundant flower evaluations

Qing Dynasty Flower Arrangement Theory:

The Qing Dynasty mainly inherited and developed Ming Dynasty theory with little innovation:

• “Vase Flower Manual” and “Vase History” continued to be revered as classics
• Some annotated and explanatory works appeared
• “Flower Mirror” (written by Chen Haozi, 1688): Summarized previous generations’ flower arrangement experience

Flower Monographs:

The Qing Dynasty saw more flower monographs appear:

• “Expanded Compendium of Fragrant Flowers”: Kangxi imperially commissioned, comprehensive flower knowledge compilation
• “Flower Calendar”: Recorded monthly flower tidings
• Various local floral chronicles

Local Floral Cultures:

The Qing Dynasty maintained distinctive regional floral cultures:

• Beijing:
  • “Changdian Flower Market” before and after Spring Festival was extremely lively
  • Both court and common people loved raising and arranging flowers
• Suzhou, Yangzhou:
  • Inherited Ming Dynasty tradition; literati still maintained flower arrangement habits
  • Floral arrangements in gardens were extremely sophisticated
• Guangzhou:
  • “Flower markets” became important Spring Festival customs
  • Lingnan floral characteristics were distinct
• Sichuan:
  • Chengdu “Flower Fair” had long history
  • Famous for hibiscus and crabapple

Characteristics of Qing Dynasty Flower Arrangement:

1. Increased Conservatism:
   • More reliance on ancient texts, less innovation
   • Emphasized rules and tradition
2. Still Maintained High Standards:
   • Techniques were exquisite
   • Aesthetic standards remained very high
3. Tendency Toward Popularization:
   • Flower arrangement became more popular among common people
   • Regional characteristics formed in various places

Mid to Late Qing (1840 – 1912 CE)

Decline Amid Internal and External Troubles:

After the Opium War, China entered a turbulent period; traditional culture was impacted:

• Warfare destroyed the material foundation of floral culture
• Western cultural impact questioned traditional aesthetics
• Social turmoil caused literati class decline
• Flower arrangement gradually shifted from literati elite culture to folk customs

Maintenance of Folk Floral Customs:

Despite elite culture decline, folk customs were still maintained:

• Spring Festival, Qingming, Dragon Boat Festival, and other holiday flower customs
• Wedding and funeral floral etiquette
• Flower markets continued to exist in various places
• Folk flower arrangement enthusiasts remained

Introduction of Western Floristry:

Late Qing period saw Western floristry begin to enter China:

• Mission schools taught Western flower arrangement
• Western-style flower shops appeared in concession areas
• Chinese and Western floral cultures began to make contact

Preservation of Tradition:

Some literati still upheld tradition:

• Scholar families still maintained flower arrangement habits
• Private school education still included flower knowledge
• Some local literati organizations still held flower-viewing elegant gatherings

Republican Period (1912 – 1949 CE)

The Republican period was a low point for traditional flower arrangement art but also a transitional period.

Traditional Disruption:

• Abolition of imperial examinations caused literati class to disappear
• New Culture Movement criticized traditional culture
• Frequent warfare caused cultural decline
• Younger generation no longer learned traditional flower arrangement

Spread of Western Floristry:

• Western-style flower shops increased in large cities
• Western bouquet-style arrangements became popular
• Flower baskets became common gift forms
• Wedding flower decorations westernized

Continuation of Folk Customs:

• Spring Festival, Qingming, and other holiday flower customs were still maintained
• Folk wedding and funeral flower etiquette continued
• But forms gradually simplified

Academic Preservation:

• Some scholars began studying traditional flower arrangement from academic perspective
• Horticultural schools offered flower courses
• Some horticultural and floral books were published

Regional Differences:

• Beiping (Beijing): Still had some literati maintaining tradition
• Shanghai: Highest degree of westernization, most Western-style flower shops
• Rural Areas: Traditional customs maintained better

People’s Republic of China Period (1949 – Present)

After New China’s establishment, flower arrangement art experienced a tortuous development process.

Early PRC to Pre-Cultural Revolution (1949 – 1966 CE)

Re-evaluation of Traditional Arts:

• Traditional culture was once criticized as “feudal dross”
• Flower arrangement was viewed as “petty bourgeois sentiment”
• Professional research and transmission interrupted
• But folk customs were partially maintained

Utilitarian Orientation:

• Emphasized flowers’ economic value
• Developed flower cultivation industry
• Urban greening movement
• Insufficient attention to ornamental value

Cultural Revolution Period (1966 – 1976 CE)

Disaster for Traditional Arts:

• Flower arrangement viewed as “Four Olds”
• Many ancient texts and objects destroyed
• Transmission completely interrupted
• Many old artisans persecuted

Only Preservation:

• Diplomatic occasions required floral decoration
• A few professionals secretly maintained skills
• Folk secretly maintained some customs

Reform and Opening to Present (1978 – Present)

After Reform and Opening, Chinese traditional flower arrangement art began revival and reconstruction.

1980s: Beginning of Revival

Academic Research Restarted:

• Scholars began organizing ancient texts and documents
• Published annotated editions of ancient texts like “Vase Flower Manual” and “Vase History”
• Researched traditional flower arrangement theory

Professional Organizations Established:

• 1984: China Flower Arrangement Association established
• Various places established flower arrangement research societies
• Flower arrangement training classes opened

Exchange with Japan:

• Japanese flower arrangement extensively introduced
• Frequent China-Japan floral art exchanges
• Both enlightening and confusing for understanding domestic tradition

Initial Revival:

• Some old artisans were found and taught skills
• Younger generation began learning
• But understanding of tradition still had deviations

1990s: Exploration and Development

Seeking Chinese Characteristics:

• Scholars and artists began thinking about Chinese flower arrangement’s uniqueness
• Comparative research with Japanese flower arrangement and Western floristry
• Attempted to rebuild Chinese flower arrangement system

Theoretical Construction:

• Published multiple Chinese flower arrangement history works
• Theoretical seminars increased
• Established theoretical framework for Chinese flower arrangement

Practical Development:

• Flower arrangement competitions held
• Flower arrangement performances increased
• Professional florist workforce formed

Commercial Development:

• Number of flower shops greatly increased
• Flower market prospered
• Flower arrangement service industrialized

2000s to Present: Maturity and Innovation

System Reconstruction:

Modern Chinese flower arrangement formed a relatively complete system:

1. Revival of Traditional Flower Arrangement:
   • “Chinese Traditional Flower Arrangement” concept established
   • Clarified differences from Japanese flower arrangement and Western floristry
   • Emphasized “following nature” and “expressing artistic conception”
2. Style Classification:
   • Literati Flower Arrangement: Inherited Song-Ming literati tradition, pursuing refined simplicity
   • Court Flower Arrangement: Referenced historical court style, magnificent and splendid
   • Folk Flower Arrangement: Absorbed folk tradition, lively and natural
   • Temple Flower Arrangement: Buddhist temple and Daoist temple style, pure and solemn
   • Modern Creative Flower Arrangement: Combined contemporary aesthetics, innovative expression
3. Technique System:
   • Excavation and organization of traditional techniques
   • Restoration and use of ancient tools like “sa” (flower frogs)
   • Various fixing and shaping techniques
   • Preservation techniques
4. In-depth Theoretical Research:
   • Academic works like Brief History of Chinese Flower Arrangement published
   • In-depth research on ancient flower arrangement theory
   • Aesthetic theory construction
   • Research on relationship with Chinese philosophy and aesthetics

Education System Establishment:

• Higher Education:
  • Horticulture and landscape architecture majors offered flower arrangement courses
  • Some institutions established floral art majors
  • Cultivated professional talent
• Vocational Education:
  • Florist professional qualification certification
  • Various training institutions
  • Skill standards established
• Social Education:
  • Communities offered flower arrangement courses
  • Senior university flower arrangement classes
  • Widespread popularization education

Characteristics of Contemporary Chinese Flower Arrangement:

1. Integration of Traditional and Modern:
   • Maintained traditional aesthetic spirit
   • Used modern flower materials and techniques
   • Adapted to contemporary lifestyle
2. East-West Fusion:
   • Absorbed Western floristry techniques
   • Drew on Japanese flower arrangement’s refinement
   • Maintained Chinese cultural core
3. Diversified Development:
   • Diverse styles
   • Coexisting schools
   • Encouraged innovation
4. Equal Emphasis on Theory and Practice:
   • Valued theoretical research
   • Emphasized practical skills
   • Theory guided practice
5. Professionalization and Popularization in Parallel:
   • Professional standards continuously improved
   • Simultaneously emphasized mass popularization
   • All levels of needs could be met

Contemporary Representative Figures:

• Wang Lianying: Pioneer of Chinese flower arrangement research
• Qin Kuijie: Theoretical research and educational promotion
• Zhang Chao: Promoter of Chinese traditional flower arrangement revival
• Cai Zhongjuan: Developer of Taiwan Chinese flower art
• And numerous contemporary florists and educators

Important Activities and Organizations:

• China Flower Arrangement and Floral Art Association: National organization promoting industry development
• Provincial and Municipal Flower Arrangement Associations: Local organizations conducting regional activities
• China Cup Flower Arrangement Competition: National-level competition
• World Cup Flower Arrangement Competition: China’s participation in international exchange
• China International Flower Expo: Showcasing flower arrangement art

Contemporary Flower Arrangement Application Areas:

1. Home Decoration:
   • Daily home flower arrangement popularized
   • Emphasized coordination with interior environment
   • Simple practical style welcomed
2. Commercial Spaces:
   • Hotels and restaurants’ floral arrangements
   • Office space greening and beautification
   • Shopping malls and exhibition hall decoration
3. Celebration Activities:
   • Wedding floral design
   • Conference activity arrangements
   • Festival decoration
4. Art Exhibitions:
   • Flower arrangement art exhibitions
   • Integration with other art forms
   • Cultural exchange activities
5. Teaching and Research:
   • School education
   • Social training
   • Academic research

Flower Arrangement in the Digital Age:

• Online Dissemination:
  • Flower arrangement content widely spread on social media
  • Online teaching courses
  • Flower arrangement videos popular
• E-commerce Platforms:
  • Online flower shops
  • Flower material and tool e-commerce
  • Door-to-door flower arrangement services
• Innovative Forms:
  • New displays combining technology
  • Interactive experience activities
  • VR/AR technology applications

Challenges Faced:

1. Traditional Disruption:
   • Impact of nearly a century of interruption still present
   • Understanding of tradition needs deepening
   • Transmission chains need strengthening
2. Commercialization Impact:
   • Excessive commercialization may damage artistry
   • Contradiction between fast-food consumption and traditional spirit
   • How to balance commerce and art
3. Cultural Identity:
   • Younger generation’s insufficient understanding of traditional culture
   • Significant influence from Western and Japanese culture
   • How to strengthen cultural confidence
4. Innovation and Tradition:
   • How to innovate while maintaining tradition
   • Avoiding formalization and superficiality
   • Truly understanding traditional spirit

Future Outlook:

1. Cultural Revival:
   • As national cultural confidence strengthens, traditional flower arrangement receives attention
   • More young people learning traditional flower arrangement
   • Forming new transmission chains
2. Theoretical Deepening:
   • More in-depth research on traditional theory
   • Establishing complete modern theoretical system
   • Integrating with contemporary aesthetics
3. International Exchange:
   • Chinese flower arrangement going global
   • Increasing influence in international floral art circles
   • Becoming an important school of world floristry
4. Life-oriented Development:
   • Flower arrangement truly integrating into contemporary life
   • Not just performance art but lifestyle
   • Everyone can appreciate and participate
5. Innovative Development:
   • Continuous innovation on traditional foundation
   • Adapting to era demands
   • Maintaining artistic vitality

Philosophical Foundations of Chinese Flower Arrangement

The reason Chinese flower arrangement formed a unique system and style fundamentally lies in its profound philosophical foundations.

Influence of Confucian Thought

“Comparing Virtue” Concept:

• Confucius proposed “Orchids grow in deep forests, their fragrance unchanged by absence of people”
• Anthropomorphized plants; flowers became moral symbols
• “Four Gentlemen” of plum, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum represent gentleman’s virtues
• Flower arrangement became a path to self-cultivation

“Harmony and Mean” Aesthetics:

• Pursued harmony and balance
• Opposed extremes and radicalism
• Flower arrangement emphasized “neither too busy nor too sparse,” “just right”

Ritual Norms:

• Different occasions had different flower etiquette
• Flower selection had rules
• Reflected social order and ethics

Influence of Daoist Thought

“Dao Follows Nature”:

• Laozi’s “Humans follow Earth, Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows Dao, Dao follows Nature”
• Flower arrangement pursued natural beauty
• Opposed excessive artificiality
• “Though made by humans, seemingly naturally formed”

“Non-action yet Nothing Undone”:

• Seemingly casual, actually carefully considered
• “Unintentional willow planting produces shade”
• Pursued naturally occurring effects

“Emptiness” and “Fullness”:

• Valued blank space (emptiness)
• Emptiness and fullness mutually create
• “Counting white as black” aesthetics

“Great Skill Appears Clumsy”:

• Pursued simplicity and innocence
• Opposed showing off skills
• “Clear water produces lotus, naturally unadorned”

Influence of Buddhist Thought

“Form is Emptiness”:

• Flowers blooming and falling reflect impermanence
• Flower arrangement is contemplation of life
• “One flower, one world”

Chan Buddhist Aesthetics:

• Minimalism
• Valued present experience
• “Directly pointing to the human heart”

Compassion Concept:

• Caring for flowers and trees
• Moderate picking
• Respecting life

Chinese Aesthetic Spirit

Pursuit of “Artistic Conception”:

• Not only formal beauty but more importantly spiritual realm
• “Scenery beyond scenery,” “charm beyond charm”
• Pursued “spirit,” “charm,” “qi”

“Spirited Vitality”:

• Xie He’s first of “Six Laws”
• Flower arrangement pursued expression of vitality
• Not rigid decoration

“Poetry and Painting Share Origins”:

• Flower arrangement pursued poetic mood
• Possessed pictorial composition
• Three arts mutually influenced

“Less is More”:

• Minimalist aesthetics
• Art of blank space
• “Less is more”

Basic Principles of Chinese Flower Arrangement

Synthesizing historical theory and practice, we can summarize basic principles of Chinese flower arrangement:

I. Following Nature

Respecting Natural Laws:

• Flower materials arranged according to natural growth state
• No excessive bending or twisting
• Maintaining plants’ original posture

Moving with the Seasons:

• Strictly selecting flowers by season
• “Spring orchids, autumn chrysanthemums,” “summer lotus, winter plum”
• Not arranging out of season

Heaven and Humanity United:

• Harmony between humans and nature
• Flower arrangement reflects natural principle
• Not violating nature

II. Refined Simplicity

“Pure”:

• Fresh, lofty, refined
• Colors not vulgar
• Fragrance not intense

“Elegant”:

• Noble, graceful, refined
• High-class style
• Avoiding vulgarity

“Simple”:

• Concise, clean
• Not many flowers used
• “One branch alone in excellence” common

III. Profound Artistic Conception

Expressing with Feeling:

• Flower arrangement expresses emotion
• Entrusts thought
• Not just formal beauty

Poetic and Pictorial Meaning:

• Pursued poetic mood
• Possessed pictorial composition
• “Painting contains poetry, poetry contains painting”

Subtle and Reserved:

• Not bluntly revealed
• Left imaginative space
• “Words end but meaning continues”

IV. Harmonious Unity

Flowers Harmonize with Vessels:

• Flower materials coordinate with containers
• Appropriate proportions
• Harmonious colors

Flowers Harmonize with Environment:

• Coordinated with surroundings
• Adapted to spatial characteristics
• Enhanced atmosphere

Overall Balance:

• Composition balanced but asymmetrical
• High-low variation orderly
• Emptiness and fullness mutually create

V. Symbolic Meaning

Flower Anthropomorphization:

• Each flower has specific symbolism
• Plum: Purity, steadfastness
• Orchid: Elegance, nobility
• Chrysanthemum: Reclusion, longevity
• Bamboo: Uprightness, humility
• Peony: Wealth, prosperity
• Lotus: Purity, transcendence

Combination Meanings:

• Different flower material combinations express specific meanings
• Pine, bamboo, plum: “Three Friends of Winter”
• Plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum: “Four Gentlemen”
• Conveying feelings through flower language

VI. Adapting to Time and Place

Seasonal Principles:

• Spring: Forsythia, peach blossom, plum blossom, orchid
• Summer: Lotus, pomegranate, gardenia
• Autumn: Chrysanthemum, osmanthus, hibiscus
• Winter: Plum blossom, narcissus, camellia

Spatial Adaptation:

• Study: Refined and simple
• Living room: Generous and proper
• Bedroom: Warm and tranquil
• Buddhist hall: Solemn and dignified

Occasion Appropriateness:

• Celebrations: Joyous and warm
• Elegant gatherings: Refined and transcendent
• Rituals: Dignified and solemn

Classic Techniques of Chinese Flower Arrangement

Traditional Fixing Techniques

Use of “Sa” (Flower Frog):

• Sa is traditional fixing tool, similar to modern kenzan
• Usually made of bronze or lead
• Multiple needle densities and heights
• Hidden inside container, not exposed

“Cross” Fixing Method:

• Using two small branches crossed
• Wedged in container mouth to fix flower materials
• Suitable for vases with smaller openings

“Wrapping Method”:

• Using flexible branches to wrap and fix
• Suitable for baskets, hampers, and other containers
• Creating natural wrapping effect

“Piling and Pressing Method”:

• Using stones and sand to press flower roots
• Suitable for shallow plates and water basins
• Appearing natural and casual

Traditional Shaping Techniques

“Upright Style” (Vertical Style):

• Main branch upright, height usually 1.5-2 times container height
• Reflects upright, upward spirit
• Suitable for expressing upright plants like bamboo and chrysanthemum

“Inclined Style” (Slanting Style):

• Main branch inclined, creating dynamic beauty
• Reflects natural states like wind-blown or waterside
• More rhythmic

“Horizontal Style” (Lateral Style):

• Main branch extends horizontally
• Suitable for expressing pine branches, plum branches, etc.
• Displays lateral slanting beauty

“Hanging Style” (Drooping Style):

• Branches hang downward
• Suitable for willows, vines, etc.
• Creates flowing, graceful effect

“Free Style”:

• Not constrained by method, following heart’s desire
• Emphasized natural spontaneity
• Best embodies “no method as method” realm

“Heaven-Earth-Human” Composition Principle

Chinese traditional flower arrangement emphasized “three main branches” theory:

“Heaven” (Main Branch):

• Highest branch, represents heaven
• Height about 1.5-2 times container height
• Symbolizes upward, sublime

“Earth” (Secondary Branch):

• Second highest branch, represents earth
• Height about 2/3 of “Heaven”
• Symbolizes bearing, stability

“Human” (Tertiary Branch):

• Third highest branch, represents humanity
• Height about 2/3 of “Earth” or 1/2 of “Heaven”
• Symbolizes humanity’s position between heaven and earth

Other Supporting Branches:

• Added according to need
• Served supplementary, enriching roles
• But couldn’t overshadow main elements

Three Branch Relationships:

• Three branches formed triangular composition
• Not in same plane
• Had front and back, high and low
• Formed three-dimensional space

Art of Blank Space

“Counting White as Black”:

• Blank spaces also part of composition
• “Emptiness” and “fullness” equally important
• Gave imaginative space

“Sparse Enough to Run Horses”:

• Don’t arrange too densely
• Maintain openness
• “Sparse places can run horses”

“Qi Flows Through”:

• Blank space allows “qi” to flow
• Avoided congested feeling
• Created “breathing” space

Color Application

Green as Primary:

• Leaf materials occupied important position
• Green as main color tone
• Flowers as embellishment

Colors Not Exceeding Three:

• Generally not exceeding three colors
• Avoided disorder
• Pursued harmonious unity

Color Symbolism:

• Red: Celebration, warmth
• White: Purity, mourning
• Yellow: Nobility, autumn feeling
• Purple: Elegance, mystery
• Blue: Coolness, delicacy

Contrast and Harmony:

• Moderate contrast, clear primary-secondary
• Overall harmony, not jarring
• Measured cold-warm pairing

Vessels for Chinese Flower Arrangement

Containers held extremely important positions in Chinese flower arrangement; “flowers and vessels as one” was an important characteristic of Chinese flower arrangement.

Vase Types

Materials:

• Ceramic Vases: Most commonly used; Song Dynasty Five Great Kilns (Ru, Guan, Ge, Jun, Ding) most revered
• Bronze Vases: Antique and substantial; Ming-Qing literati liked using Shang-Zhou ancient bronzes
• Glass Vases: Clear and transparent, but not as valued as ceramics
• Bamboo Vases: Refined and natural, suitable for literati studies
• Wooden Vases: Simple and natural, with unique charm

Forms:

• Meiping (Plum Vase): Small mouth, short neck, full shoulders—Song Dynasty classic form
• Yuhuchun Vase: Flared mouth, slender neck, round belly—gracefully flowing
• Danping (Gallbladder Vase): Straight mouth, long neck, belly hangs like suspended gallbladder
• Guanyin Vase: Flared mouth, long neck, round belly
• Hulu Vase (Gourd Vase): Imitates gourd shape, auspicious meaning

Colors:

• Celadon: Most revered by literati, “green as sky, bright as mirror”
• White Porcelain: Pure and elegant, suitable for various flower materials
• Blue-and-White: Appealing to both refined and popular tastes, rich patterns
• Jun Ware: Rich color variations, mysterious
• Monochrome Glaze: Concise and pure, best embodies “vessel elegance”

Plate Types

Shallow Plates:

• Suitable for waterscape-style arrangements
• Could express natural landscapes
• Often used with unusual stones

Deep Plates:

• Larger capacity
• Could arrange more complex works
• Suitable for combination arrangements

Shapes:

• Round: Harmonious and complete
• Square: Dignified and stable
• Oval: Gentle and graceful
• Irregular: Natural and lively

Tube Types

Bamboo Tubes:

• Naturally simple
• Suitable for rustic flower materials
• Reflects lofty character

Wooden Tubes:

• Plain and unadorned
• Suitable for literati studies
• Often used for wall-hung arrangements

Basket and Container Types

Flower Baskets:

• Bamboo weave, rattan weave
• Suitable for pastoral style
• Could be carried, easy to move

Diverse Forms:

• Round baskets, square baskets, oval baskets
• Carrying baskets, hanging baskets, seated baskets
• Each had uses

Jar and Urn Types

Large Containers:

• Suitable for large-scale arrangements
• Often used in halls and gardens
• Could arrange tall branches

Materials:

• Pottery jars: Rough and natural
• Porcelain urns: Refined and elegant
• Bronze vessels: Antique and substantial

Other Special Vessels

Wall-hung Vessels:

• Half-vases, crescent shapes
• Hung on walls
• Saved space, uniquely interesting

Suspended Vessels:

• Hangable flower vessels
• Suitable for hanging plants
• Created aerial garden effect

Combination Vessels:

• Multiple containers combined
• Could separate or unite
• Rich variations

Vessel Selection Principles

“Vessels Should Be Elegant Not Vulgar”:

• Select elegant vessels
• Avoid vulgar ornamentation
• “Great elegance appears rustic” is highest realm

“Flowers Harmonize with Vessels”:

• Flower materials should coordinate with containers
• Consider color, texture, proportion
• Traditional pairings like “plum suits Guan and Ge kilns, chrysanthemum suits bronze vessels”

“Ancient Vessels Are Best”:

• Antiques have historical charm
• “Deep earth qi,” suitable for nourishing flowers
• But shouldn’t blindly pursue antiques

“Value Lies in Appropriateness”:

• Different occasions use different vessels
• Adapt to place, adapt to flowers
• Most important is “suitability”

Flower Materials in Chinese Flower Arrangement

Woody Flower Materials

Plum Blossom:

• First of “Gentlemanly Flowers”
• Symbolizes purity, steadfastness
• Main flower material in winter-spring season
• Emphasizes branch linear beauty
• “Sparse shadows slanting” is ideal state

Orchid:

• “King’s Fragrance”
• Symbolizes elegance, seclusion
• Literati favorite
• Values leaf lines
• “Orchids growing in secluded valleys” mood

Chrysanthemum:

• “Recluse Among Flowers”
• Symbolizes seclusion, longevity
• Main autumn flower material
• Numerous varieties, rich colors
• “Picking chrysanthemums by eastern fence” sentiment

Peony:

• “King of Flowers”
• Symbolizes wealth, prosperity
• Grand and magnificent
• Most suitable for court and celebrations
• But literati sometimes considered it too “wealthy”

Bamboo:

• “Gentleman” plant
• Symbolizes uprightness, humility
• Evergreen year-round
• Called “Four Gentlemen” with plum, orchid, chrysanthemum
• Branches and leaves all usable in vases

Pine:

• One of “Three Friends of Winter”
• Symbolizes steadfastness, longevity
• Vigorous branches
• Suitable for winter
• Often paired with bamboo and plum

Peach Blossom:

• Spring representative flower
• Symbolizes love, longevity
• Charming colors
• “The peach tree is young and elegant, brilliant are its flowers”
• Folk celebrations commonly use

Lotus (Lotus Flower):

• Main summer flower material
• Buddhist sacred flower
• Symbolizes purity, transcendence
• “Rising from mud without being stained”
• Flowers, leaves, and seed pods all usable

Crabapple:

• “Immortal Among Flowers”
• Appealing to refined and popular tastes
• Important spring flower material
• “Crabapple spring sleep” allusion
• Loved by both literati and court

Camellia:

• Winter-spring blooming
• Bright colors
• Green leaves red flowers
• Cold-hardy, strong vitality
• “Lady of the Camellias” world-famous

Osmanthus:

• Important autumn flower material
• “Osmanthus fragrance wafting”
• Symbolizes nobility, auspiciousness
• “Winning laurels in the palace” allusion
• Pleasant fragrance

Herbaceous Peony:

• “Prime Minister of Flowers”
• Called “King and Prime Minister” with peony
• Late spring early summer blooming
• Rich colors
• “Prime of youth,” “lingering beauty”

Apricot Blossom:

• Early spring flower
• “Apricot blossoms and spring rain in Jiangnan”
• Fresh and elegant
• Poetically evocative

Pear Blossom:

• “Thousand trees ten thousand trees pear blossoms bloom”
• Pure white and elegant
• Spring flower material
• Suitable for expressing pure beauty

Peach and Plum Blossoms:

• “Peaches and plums all over the world”
• Spring flower materials
• Symbolize students, teacher’s kindness
• Suitable for educational occasions

Crape Myrtle:

• Summer-autumn flower
• Long flowering period
• Bright colors
• “Hundred-day red”

Cotton Rose:

• Autumn flower
• “Face like cotton rose”
• Bright colors
• Morning white, evening red varieties especially peculiar

Wintersweet:

• Blooms in cold winter
• “Alone blooming in bitter cold”
• Rich fragrance
• Called alongside plum blossom but actually different family

Narcissus:

• Winter-spring flower
• “Goddess of the Waves”
• Refined and transcendent
• Commonly used for New Year
• Water cultivation sufficient, extremely convenient

Herbaceous Flower Materials

Orchid Grass:

• Spring orchid, Cymbidium, Jian orchid, etc.
• Leaf linear beauty extremely important
• “One stem one flower is orchid, one stem multiple flowers is Cymbidium”
• Called “National Fragrance”

Calamus:

• Essential for Dragon Boat Festival
• Sword-shaped leaves
• Drives away evil, avoids harm
• Also used for literati pure offerings

Daylily:

• “Forget-worry grass”
• Summer flower
• “Daylily hall” represents mother
• Symbolizes maternal love

Banana:

• Large-leaf plant
• Commonly used leaf material
• “Rain beating banana” mood
• Suitable for expressing southern scenery

Arrowroot, Monstera, and other foliage plants:

• Mainly use leaves
• Usable year-round
• Used with flower materials

Amaryllis family plants:

• Clivia, red spider lily, amaryllis, etc.
• Both flowers and leaves excellent
• Suitable for indoors

Vine Flower Materials

Wisteria:

• Important spring flower material
• Hangs in strings
• Romantic and graceful
• “Wisteria flower trellis” is classic landscape

Trumpet Creeper:

• Summer climbing flower
• Orange-red flowers
• Warm and unrestrained

Boston Ivy, English Ivy:

• Mainly use leaves
• Graceful lines
• Suitable for hanging arrangements

Fruits and Seed Pods

Pomegranate:

• Full fruit
• Symbolizes many children, much fortune
• Bright colors

Loquat, Persimmon:

• Autumn fruit materials
• Rich colors
• Profound mood

Heavenly Bamboo:

• Red fruit
• Main winter fruit material
• Celebratory and auspicious

Various seed pods:

• Lotus seed pods, banana fans, etc.
• Peculiar shapes
• Add interest

Branch Types

Willow Branches:

• Gracefully curved lines
• Suitable for hanging, weaving
• “Willow branches swaying” mood

Dead Branches:

• Peculiarly shaped dead wood
• Embodies “withering and flourishing” philosophy
• Often contrasted with green leaves, fresh flowers

Vine Branches:

• Highly malleable
• Suitable for weaving, shaping
• Creates natural rustic interest

Flower Material Pairing Principles

“Four Gentlemen” Combination:

• Any combination of plum, orchid, bamboo, chrysanthemum
• Expresses lofty character

“Three Friends of Winter” Combination:

• Pine, bamboo, plum
• Expresses steadfast resolve

“Same Season Pairing”:

• Spring: Peach, plum, apricot, plum, orchid
• Summer: Lotus, pomegranate, crape myrtle
• Autumn: Chrysanthemum, osmanthus, cotton rose
• Winter: Plum, tea, narcissus

“Primary-Secondary Distinction”:

• One type as primary, others as supporting
• Avoid equal emphasis
• Prominent theme

“Color Harmony”:

• Same color system gradation
• Moderate contrasting colors
• Avoid disorder

Classic Scenes and Applications of Chinese Flower Arrangement

Literati Study

Environmental Characteristics:

• Refined and secluded
• Full of scholarly atmosphere
• Complete study implements

Arrangement Characteristics:

• Extremely simple style
• One or few branches
• Often use “Four Gentlemen”
• Pursue lofty mood

Classic Configuration:

• Desk vase with plum blossom
• Window orchid’s secluded fragrance
• Bamboo shadow beside bookshelf
• Accompanied by ancient qin, calligraphy and painting

Palace Halls

Environmental Characteristics:

• Vast space
• Magnificent splendor
• Strict etiquette

Arrangement Characteristics:

• Relatively large scale
• Rich colors
• Grand and magnificent
• Symmetrical or paired placement

Common Flower Materials:

• Peony (wealth)
• Herbaceous peony (prosperity)
• Lotus (sanctity)
• Plum blossom (elegance)

Temple Buddhist Halls

Environmental Characteristics:

• Solemn and dignified
• Incense smoke curling
• Buddha statue centered

Arrangement Characteristics:

• Symmetrical layout
• Pure colors
• Lotus as primary
• Reflects devotional offering

Offering Flower Rules:

• Fixed quantity
• Orderly position
• Conducted according to ritual
• Regularly replaced

Garden Courtyards

Environmental Characteristics:

• Natural landscape
• Pavilions and towers
• Changing scenery with steps

Arrangement Characteristics:

• Integrated with environment
• Following nature
• Adapting to place
• Rustic interest abundant

Application Methods:

• Hanging vases in pavilions
• Potted flowers under corridors
• Lotus in waterside pavilions
• Wild grass beside stones

Folk Living Halls

Environmental Characteristics:

• Family atmosphere
• Practicality primary
• Festival decoration

Arrangement Characteristics:

• Celebratory and auspicious
• Beautiful meanings
• Bright colors
• Relatively abundant

Common Flower Materials:

• Spring Festival: Narcissus, plum blossom, peach blossom
• Dragon Boat Festival: Calamus, mugwort
• Mid-Autumn: Osmanthus, chrysanthemum
• Weddings: Peony, lotus, lily

Tea Table Flower Art

Environmental Characteristics:

• Tea ceremony space
• Pure and elegant
• Values artistic conception

Arrangement Characteristics:

• Small and exquisite
• Not overshadowing host
• Coordinated with tea table
• Creates Chan mood

Material Selection Emphasis:

• Simple and plain
• Seasonal flower materials
• Fragrance cannot overpower tea fragrance
• Often use single branches

Festival Occasions

Spring Festival:

• Narcissus, plum blossom, peach blossom, peony
• Celebratory colors
• Auspicious meanings
• “Flowers bloom, wealth arrives”

Qingming:

• Willow branches, peach blossoms
• Spring outing, flower picking
• Remembering ancestors
• White chrysanthemums for rituals

Dragon Boat Festival:

• Calamus, mugwort, pomegranate flowers
• Drive away evil, avoid pestilence
• Strong folk color

Mid-Autumn:

• Osmanthus, chrysanthemum
• Moon viewing arrangements
• Refined and pleasant

Double Ninth:

• Chrysanthemum as primary
• Climbing heights, viewing chrysanthemums
• Respecting elders, wishing longevity

Winter Solstice:

• Plum blossom, camellia
• Welcoming yang energy
• Winter warmth

Life Rituals

Weddings:

• Peony, lotus, lily
• Paired arrangements
• Meaning perfect harmony
• Celebratory colors

Birthday Celebrations:

• Chrysanthemum, pine, cypress, lingzhi
• Symbolize longevity
• Pine and crane extending years theme

Funerals:

• White chrysanthemum, yellow chrysanthemum
• Plain and solemn
• Express mourning
• Following etiquette

Childbirth:

• Pomegranate, osmanthus
• Many children, much fortune
• Celebratory congratulations

Conclusion: The Unique Value of Chinese Flower Arrangement Art

Reviewing three thousand years of Chinese flower arrangement development, we can see this art’s unique cultural value:

Philosophical Depth

Chinese flower arrangement is not just technique but philosophy embodied:

• Confucian moral pursuit
• Daoist natural concepts
• Buddhist life contemplation
• These profound philosophical contents elevate Chinese flower arrangement beyond mere decorative function, becoming a path to spiritual cultivation

Aesthetic Heights

Chinese flower arrangement established a unique aesthetic system:

• “Less is more” minimalist aesthetics
• “Emptiness and fullness mutually create” spatial art
• “Profound artistic conception” spiritual pursuit
• “Heaven and humanity united” harmonious concept
• These aesthetic principles not only influenced all areas of Chinese art but also had profound impact on world art

Cultural Vehicle

Flower arrangement carries abundant cultural information:

• Floral symbolic system reflects Chinese values
• Flower arrangement etiquette embodies social norms
• Seasonality reflects agricultural civilization characteristics
• Integration with poetry, calligraphy, and painting displays literati culture traits

Life Art

Chinese flower arrangement integrates art into life:

• Not lofty pure art
• But beautification of daily life
• Everyone can participate
• Beauty reflected everywhere

Contemporary Value

In contemporary society, Chinese flower arrangement art still possesses important value:

Spiritual Value:

• Provides spiritual solace in fast-paced modern life
• Cultivates aesthetic taste
• Molds character
• Self-cultivation

Cultural Identity:

• Strengthens cultural confidence
• Transmits excellent traditions
• Establishes cultural identity
• Promotes cultural exchange

Ecological Consciousness:

• “Following nature” concept aligns with ecological civilization
• Respecting nature, following nature
• “Moderate picking” reflects sustainable development
• Harmonious coexistence with nature

Innovation Foundation:

• Tradition is not constraint but nourishment
• Innovation on traditional foundation
• Integration with modern life
• International integration

Future Outlook

Future development of Chinese flower arrangement art requires:

In-depth Research:

• Continue excavating historical documents
• Deepen theoretical research
• Establish complete academic system
• Cultivate professional talent

Broad Transmission:

• Start with children, popularize education
• Establish transmission system
• Cultivate new generation of inheritors
• Let more people understand and love

Keeping Pace with Times:

• Adapt to modern lifestyle
• Use new materials and technologies
• Innovate expression forms
• But maintain cultural core

International Exchange:

• Show Chinese flower arrangement beauty to world
• Exchange and learn with various countries’ floristry
• Contribute Chinese wisdom to world floristry
• Strengthen cultural soft power

Chinese flower arrangement art, after over three thousand years of development, has accumulated profound cultural heritage, formed a unique aesthetic system, and created countless classic works. Despite modern era’s twists and turns, this art’s vitality remains vigorous. In the new era, Chinese flower arrangement art will surely radiate new brilliance, inheriting in innovation, developing in innovation, continuing to contribute unique Eastern aesthetic wisdom to humanity’s cultural treasury.

“Flowers bloom and fall, years flow like water,” but the cultural spirit, aesthetic concepts, and life wisdom carried by flower arrangement art will forever be transmitted, nourishing generation after generation of Chinese people’s hearts, and will surely add brilliant colors to world cultural diversity.