From the rose gardens of Western Europe to the marigold temples of India — how cultures around the world honour love with flowers
The Universal Language of Flowers
No human culture has ever been entirely indifferent to flowers. Across every continent, every civilisation, and every era of recorded history, people have given flowers to mark the moments that matter — birth, death, celebration, mourning, devotion, and apology. Among all these moments, the anniversary holds a particular place: it is the annual reckoning with time, a chance to say that what began on a specific day still lives and still grows.
Yet the flowers chosen to carry that message differ enormously from one culture to the next. The deep red rose that speaks of enduring passion in the West carries entirely different connotations in parts of East Asia, where white flowers may be reserved for mourning and red blooms can suggest luck rather than romance. The marigold, largely overlooked in European floristry, is the flower of devotion and celebration across South Asia and Mexico. The chrysanthemum, associated with autumn melancholy and bereavement in France and Italy, is in China and Japan a flower of noble joy and long life.
Understanding these differences is not merely an exercise in cultural curiosity. It is genuinely useful — for couples from mixed cultural backgrounds navigating their own floral traditions, for those wishing to honour a friend or family member from a different culture, and for anyone who finds in flowers a way of thinking more carefully about the extraordinary diversity of human feeling and expression.
This guide moves around the world, culture by culture, exploring the flowers associated with love and anniversaries, the traditions that surround them, and the meanings that have accumulated around particular blooms across centuries of human cultivation and celebration.
Western Europe and North America: The Language of Flowers
The floral traditions of Western Europe and North America are rooted in a practice that reached its height in the Victorian era: the language of flowers, known as floriography. During the nineteenth century, a complex symbolic vocabulary developed around specific flowers and colours, allowing people to communicate feelings — romantic, hostile, consolatory — through carefully chosen bouquets at a time when direct emotional expression was socially constrained.
Much of this Victorian symbolism persists in contemporary Western floral culture, particularly around anniversaries. The red rose remains the defining flower of romantic love and is, without question, the most commonly given anniversary flower in Britain, the United States, France, Germany, and the English-speaking world more broadly. Its association with love is ancient — it appears in the love poetry of ancient Rome and runs through medieval courtly literature — but the specific coding of the red rose as the flower of deep, passionate, enduring romantic love was crystallised in the Victorian period and has persisted ever since.
Different rose colours carry different weights within Western tradition. Red roses speak of deep love and passion — the appropriate flower for a significant anniversary, particularly for milestone years. Pink roses suggest admiration, gratitude, and gentle affection. White roses speak of purity and new beginnings. Yellow roses, in the Victorian system, once signalled jealousy or friendship rather than love, though this has softened in contemporary usage to suggest warmth and happiness. Lavender roses carry a sense of enchantment and love at first sight, making them a charming choice for early anniversaries.
Beyond roses, specific flowers have become associated in Western tradition with specific anniversary years — a system that developed primarily in Britain and North America during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first anniversary is associated with carnations, symbolising young and devoted love. The fifth anniversary brings daisies — cheerful, unpretentious, and suggestive of the happiness of an established partnership. The tenth anniversary brings daffodils, their yellow trumpets carrying associations of joy and new chapters. The fifteenth brings roses proper, the twentieth brings asters, and the fiftieth — the golden anniversary — is traditionally marked with yellow roses or violets, flowers that speak of long devotion.
Lily of the valley holds a special place in Western anniversary and wedding tradition. Its tiny, perfectly formed white bells and sweet fragrance have made it a symbol of renewed happiness and the return of joy. It appears frequently in anniversary bouquets marking significant milestones. The peony, particularly in its full, blowsy, late-spring form, has become increasingly associated with anniversary celebration in Western culture over the past two decades — its abundance and sensuous beauty make it a natural symbol of a love that has grown richer over time.
Japan: Mono no Aware and the Flowers of Passing Time
Japanese floral culture is shaped by a philosophical concept that has no direct translation in English: mono no aware, sometimes rendered as the pathos of things or a bittersweet awareness of impermanence. It is the feeling of tender sadness that accompanies the recognition that all beautiful things are temporary — and nowhere is this more powerfully expressed than in the Japanese relationship with flowers.
The most celebrated flower in Japan is the cherry blossom — sakura — and its significance to anniversary culture flows directly from mono no aware. The cherry blossom blooms for only a week or two each spring, and its falling is as celebrated as its flowering. To give cherry blossoms on an anniversary is to acknowledge the preciousness of time and the beauty of what exists precisely because it does not last forever. It is a deeply philosophical gift — one that says not only that love is beautiful, but that its beauty is inseparable from its fragility and its passage through time.
Cherry blossom viewing, hanami, is one of Japan’s most beloved cultural traditions — families and couples gather under flowering trees each spring to celebrate the blooms and reflect on the season. For couples with spring anniversaries, hanami can function as an anniversary ritual in itself, a return each year to the same park or hillside to mark the passing year under the same falling petals.
The chrysanthemum — kiku — holds the highest ceremonial status of any flower in Japan. It appears on the Imperial Seal, and the Chrysanthemum Throne is the name given to the Japanese monarchy. In this context, the chrysanthemum represents longevity, nobility, and the endurance of what is finest in life. On milestone anniversaries — the twenty-fifth, fortieth, or fiftieth — chrysanthemums speak of exactly these qualities: a love that has lasted and become finer through duration. The chrysanthemum is also associated with the autumn season, making it a particularly appropriate anniversary flower for couples whose anniversary falls later in the year.
The plum blossom — ume — flowers in the depths of winter, often while snow is still on the ground, and has come to represent resilience, perseverance, and the triumph of beauty over adversity. It is the flower of endurance — of love that survives difficulty and continues to flower — and carries deep significance for couples who have navigated hardship together. Plum blossom is one of the classical subjects of Japanese art and poetry, and its appearance in February and March makes it a natural anniversary flower for winter celebrations.
Lotus flowers in Japan, as across much of Asia, carry spiritual associations of enlightenment and purity emerging from murky water — a powerful metaphor for love that has deepened and clarified through the ordinary difficulties of a shared life. Peonies — botan — are known in Japan as the king of flowers and are associated with good fortune, honour, and aristocratic beauty. In the context of an anniversary, they speak of the richness and honour of a long commitment.
China: The Flowers of Fortune and Long Life
Chinese floral symbolism is ancient, complex, and deeply interwoven with cosmological, philosophical, and literary traditions spanning more than three thousand years. The flowers considered auspicious in Chinese culture are not the same as those favoured in the West, and understanding their significance requires some familiarity with the broader symbolic system in which they operate.
The peony — mudan — is the undisputed queen of Chinese floristry and one of the most important anniversary flowers in Chinese culture. Known as the flower of riches and honour, the peony appears throughout Chinese art, porcelain, and textile from the Tang dynasty onward, and its full, spectacular blooms in shades of deep pink, crimson, white, and cream are associated with prosperity, romance, and feminine beauty. To give peonies on an anniversary is to offer a wish for continued abundance and flourishing — the full bloom of a life and a love at its most opulent. The peony is particularly associated with late spring, making it a powerful choice for May anniversaries.
The lotus holds perhaps the deepest philosophical significance of any flower in Chinese culture. Emerging from the mud and dark water of lakes and ponds to flower in perfect, uncontaminated beauty above the surface, the lotus is the supreme symbol of spiritual purity, moral integrity, and the enlightened life. In the context of a long marriage or partnership, the lotus speaks of a love that has grown beautiful precisely through the difficulties it has passed through — a flower of depth and earned spiritual clarity. Lotus flowers are also associated with the Buddhist concept of rebirth and renewal, making them particularly meaningful for anniversary celebrations that mark a new chapter.
The plum blossom — meihua — is one of the Four Gentlemen of Chinese art (alongside orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum) and carries associations of resilience, hope, and the arrival of spring after hardship. The chrysanthemum in Chinese culture, unlike in French or Italian tradition, is associated with long life, nobility, and the pleasures of retirement and refinement. It appears in the poetry of Tao Yuanming as the flower of the reclusive scholar who has withdrawn from worldly ambition to cultivate wisdom, which gives it a particularly appropriate resonance for later-life anniversaries.
The narcissus — shuixian, or water immortal — flowers at the Chinese New Year and is associated with good luck, prosperity, and the renewal of hope. Its pale, fragrant blooms have been cultivated in China for over a thousand years and appear throughout Chinese poetry as a symbol of elegance and incorruptible beauty. For winter anniversaries, or for couples celebrating the Chinese New Year period, narcissus is an extraordinarily resonant choice.
The orchid — lan — is one of the most revered flowers in Chinese culture, associated with the Confucian ideal of the gentleman scholar: moral refinement, beauty without ostentation, and the cultivation of virtue in obscurity. Unlike the showier flowers of Chinese symbolism, the orchid speaks of a quiet, deep excellence — a love that does not require display because its quality is intrinsic. It is the flower for couples who have built something of great, unshowy value over many years.
India: The Sacred Garland and the Flower of Devotion
In India, the relationship between flowers and celebration is more intimate, more daily, and more spiritually charged than perhaps anywhere else on earth. Flowers are not reserved for special occasions — they are woven into the fabric of daily life, offered at shrines, strung into garlands worn in the hair, scattered at the feet of deities, and used to mark every significant transition of human existence. The anniversary, in this context, takes place within a floral culture of extraordinary richness.
The marigold — genda — is the great flower of Indian celebration. Its vivid orange and yellow blooms, strung into long garlands, are the defining visual element of Indian festivities — weddings, festivals, temple offerings, and celebratory occasions of all kinds. The marigold’s colour is associated with auspiciousness, energy, and the divine — saffron and gold are the colours of sacred fire, of the sun, of the gods. To give a garland of marigolds on an anniversary is to invoke all of this: auspiciousness, divine blessing, the warmth of a life well lived.
Marigold garlands are exchanged in the ritual of jaimala at Indian weddings, and their presence at anniversary celebrations carries an echo of that original ceremony — a renewal of the blessing and the commitment made at the beginning. The fragrance of marigolds, which is distinctive and slightly medicinal, is itself associated with sacred space and ritual.
The lotus — kamal — is the national flower of India and one of the most sacred flowers in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Associated with Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity and beauty, and with Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, the lotus represents the highest flowering of human potential. On a significant anniversary, the lotus carries a message of profound beauty and spiritual depth — it says that what has grown between two people over years of shared life is something fine and rare, like a lotus flower above the waterwater.
Jasmine — chameli or mogra — is one of the most beloved flowers in Indian culture and is deeply associated with love, devotion, and sensory pleasure. Its extraordinary fragrance has made it the flower of romance and longing in Indian poetry and song for centuries. Jasmine garlands are worn in the hair on special occasions and their scent is considered among the most beautiful that nature offers. For an anniversary gift, fresh jasmine — whether as a garland, loose flowers, or a potted plant — carries layers of meaning rooted in centuries of poetic and devotional tradition.
The rose in India has its own distinct history, shaped significantly by the Mughal tradition. The emperors of the Mughal dynasty were passionate cultivators of roses, and the rose water produced from the roses of Mughal gardens became a defining element of Indian perfumery and cuisine. In this tradition, the rose carries associations of imperial beauty, refinement, and the pleasures of the cultivated garden. Red roses are given in India to express romantic love in ways that broadly parallel their meaning in the West, though the floral language they operate within is distinctly different in its cultural depth.
Tuberose — rajnigandha, meaning queen of the night — flowers after dark and produces one of the most intensely beautiful fragrances in the plant world. In Indian culture it is associated with the night, with longing, and with the intoxicating quality of deep love. It appears throughout Indian poetry as the flower of romantic devotion and sensory enchantment, and as an anniversary flower it speaks with particular power of a love that has deepened into something complex, fragrant, and irreplaceable.
The Middle East and Persian Tradition: The Rose and the Nightingale
The rose occupies a position in Persian and broader Middle Eastern cultural tradition that goes far beyond anything in the Western floral canon. In Persian poetry — the most celebrated literary tradition of the medieval Islamic world — the rose and the nightingale are the defining symbolic pair: the rose is the beloved, perfect and beautiful; the nightingale is the lover, helplessly devoted and singing its longing to the flower that cannot fully reciprocate. This imagery runs through the poetry of Hafez, Rumi, Saadi, and dozens of other Persian poets, and gives the rose a weight of accumulated literary and spiritual meaning that makes it, in this tradition, the flower of love in its most exalted and philosophical sense.
To give roses on an anniversary in a family rooted in Persian tradition is to invoke this extraordinary literary heritage. The Damask rose in particular — the ancient variety cultivated in the gardens of Iran and Syria for millennia, still grown in the valleys around Kashan for the production of rose water and rose oil — carries the deepest resonance. Rose water itself, distilled from these flowers, is one of the great gifts of Persian culture to the world, and a bottle of fine rose water or rose absolute perfume is as meaningful an anniversary gift in this tradition as a bouquet of flowers.
The narcissus — narjes — holds a significant place in Persian floral symbolism, associated with the festival of Nowruz (Persian New Year) and with the beloved’s eyes in classical poetry. Its pale, elegant flowers and sweet fragrance make it a flower of renewal and watchful love — the narcissus is the flower that sees, that is awake and attentive to the beloved.
Hyacinths — sonbol — are central to the Nowruz tradition and are associated with the renewal of life after winter. A pot of hyacinths placed on the Haft-Seen table at Nowruz is a wish for the coming year to be full of fragrance and beauty. For Persian couples whose anniversary falls near Nowruz (around the spring equinox in late March), hyacinths carry the dual significance of cultural celebration and personal renewal.
In the broader Arab world, jasmine holds enormous significance. In North Africa — particularly Tunisia and Egypt — jasmine is the flower of the street, sold by vendors on summer evenings and tucked behind the ear or into the buttonhole as an expression of simple, beautiful joy. The white flowers of Arabian jasmine have been celebrated in Arabic poetry for centuries, and their fragrance is associated with the warmth of evening, hospitality, and the pleasures of shared life. As an anniversary flower they speak of an uncomplicated, generous love.
Mexico and Latin America: The Flower of the Dead and the Living
Mexican floral culture is shaped by a tradition of extraordinary visual and symbolic richness, rooted in the cultures of the pre-Columbian Americas and transformed by the arrival of European and African influences. Flowers in Mexico are not merely decorative — they are alive with spiritual meaning, connected to the dead as much as the living, and present at every significant moment of human experience.
The marigold — cempasúchil, from the Nahuatl for twenty-flower — is the defining flower of Día de los Muertos, the Day of the Dead celebrated each November. Its vivid orange blooms and distinctive scent are believed to guide the spirits of the dead back to the world of the living during the festival, and altars are decorated with marigold petals laid out in paths leading from the cemetery to the home. In this context, the marigold is a flower of love that transcends death — the most enduring kind. For an anniversary that falls near Día de los Muertos, or for a couple who has experienced loss together, the marigold carries a depth of meaning that few other flowers can match.
The dahlia — the national flower of Mexico, where it was first cultivated by the Aztecs — is among the most spectacular of all flowering plants, producing enormous blooms in every colour imaginable. The Aztecs grew dahlias not initially for their flowers but for their tuberous roots, which are edible, but the blooms eventually became celebrated for their extraordinary beauty and were grown ornamentally in the gardens of Tenochtitlan before the Spanish arrival. As an anniversary flower, the dahlia speaks of pride, strength, and the fullness of a life in bloom — its large, complex flower heads suggesting something richly layered and deeply beautiful.
Bougainvillea — not technically a flower but a bract surrounding tiny flowers — blazes from the walls and gardens of Mexico in extraordinary shades of magenta, orange, red, and purple. It is the flower of the Mexican street and garden, exuberant and apparently indestructible, flowering through heat and drought and returning season after season with undiminished brilliance. As an anniversary symbol it speaks of resilience and passionate joy — a love that continues to blaze despite everything.
In much of Latin America, the red rose carries the same significance as in Western Europe — the flower of romantic love — but is often given in more generous quantities. It is not unusual in Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, and Colombia to give dozens or hundreds of roses for a significant anniversary, the sheer abundance of the gesture expressing a depth of feeling that a modest bunch cannot convey.
West Africa and the African Diaspora: Flowers of Celebration and Spirit
Across the extraordinarily diverse cultures of West Africa, flowers are used differently than in European or East Asian traditions — they are often less central as gifts in themselves, but deeply important as elements of ceremony, decoration, and spiritual practice. The significance of flowers in anniversary celebration in West African tradition tends to be expressed through their presence in the ceremonial space rather than as a gift between individuals.
In Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, and across much of West Africa, the hibiscus — whose Yoruba name is zobo and whose dried petals make the widely beloved bissap or zobo drink — is a flower of celebration, health, and the sweetness of life. Its large, vivid blooms in shades of red, orange, pink, and yellow are used to decorate spaces for celebrations, and the dried flowers are used to make drinks served at parties and ceremonies. The hibiscus is a flower of communal joy — of the celebration shared by a whole family or community rather than a private exchange between two people — which makes it particularly appropriate for anniversary celebrations that are also family occasions.
The bird of paradise flower — strelitzia — native to South Africa, has spread around the world partly through its extraordinary visual drama: its orange and blue blooms genuinely resemble the head of an exotic bird in flight. In South Africa and the global florist tradition it has influenced, the bird of paradise speaks of joyfulness, paradise, and freedom — it is a flower that suggests the couple has built something adventurous and alive together.
The protea, another South African native and the national flower of the country, is a flower of remarkable character — large, architectural, and extraordinary in its variety, with blooms that range from the enormous king protea to the delicate pincushion varieties. It has become increasingly significant in global floristry over the past two decades, appearing in contemporary wildflower-style arrangements worldwide. In South African cultural tradition, the protea is associated with diversity, resilience, and transformation — qualities that speak powerfully to the journey of a long relationship.
The Netherlands and the Tulip: An Anniversary Flower with an Extraordinary History
No account of flowers and culture would be complete without attention to the tulip and the Dutch tradition that made it one of the most culturally significant flowers in the world. The tulip is native to Central Asia and Turkey, where it was cultivated by the Ottomans and carried enormous cultural significance in Persian and Turkish tradition — the word tulip is thought to derive from a Turkish word for turban, describing the shape of the bloom.
When tulips arrived in the Netherlands in the sixteenth century they triggered one of the most extraordinary episodes in economic history: tulipomania, a speculative bubble in which single tulip bulbs traded for the equivalent of a house. The crash of this bubble in 1637 was one of the first recorded instances of financial speculation gone catastrophic — but it left behind it a country utterly transformed by its relationship with the flower, a relationship that persists today in the tulip fields of the Dutch countryside.
In Dutch cultural tradition, the tulip is not specifically an anniversary flower, but it carries associations of beauty, abundance, and the particular joy of spring — emotions entirely appropriate to anniversary celebration. Different colours carry different meanings: red tulips declare love directly and passionately; white tulips speak of forgiveness and new beginnings, making them appropriate for anniversaries that follow a difficult period; yellow tulips speak of cheerful sunshine and warmth; purple tulips carry associations of royalty and admiration.
The practice of giving flowers for an anniversary is itself partly a Dutch tradition, strengthened by the enormous Dutch influence on global floristry through the flower auction at Aalsmeer — the largest flower market in the world — through which a significant proportion of the world’s cut flowers pass.
Korea: The Flowers of One Hundred Days and Beyond
Korean floral tradition has its own distinctive character, shaped by Confucian philosophy, Buddhist practice, and a culture that has historically prized restraint and refinement over abundance and display. The giving of flowers in Korean culture is closely associated with specific milestones and occasions, and the choice of flower carries a significance that a casual giver might not appreciate.
The rose is the most commonly given anniversary flower in contemporary Korea, particularly among younger generations, and red roses carry the same associations of romantic love as in Western culture. However, the yellow rose is given between friends rather than lovers in Korean tradition, so a gift of yellow roses to a romantic partner might cause confusion.
The azalea — jindallae — holds a deeply significant place in Korean cultural and literary tradition. Kim Sowol’s poem Azaleas, one of the most celebrated poems in the Korean language, uses the flower to express a tender, self-sacrificial love — the speaker scattering azalea petals in the path of a departing beloved. The azalea in Korean culture is associated with longing, devotion, and a love that persists through separation and loss. For a couple with Korean roots, azaleas on an anniversary carry this whole literary and emotional tradition within them.
The rose of Sharon — mugunghwa — is the national flower of Korea, whose name means eternal flower that never fades. It flowers continuously through summer, producing new blooms each day, and its persistence and renewability make it a powerful symbol of resilience and continuity — the qualities most valued in a long and enduring partnership. As an anniversary flower the mugunghwa says, simply and beautifully, that what is between us does not fade.
The peach blossom is associated in Korean folk tradition with longevity and the blessings of the gods, and appears at celebrations marking significant life milestones. Cherry blossom — as in Japan — is the flower of spring and impermanent beauty, celebrated each year at festivals across the country.
Greece and the Mediterranean: Ancient Symbols, Enduring Flowers
The floral traditions of ancient Greece have shaped Western culture more broadly than is often appreciated. The rose, whose association with love in Western culture traces back to the ancient Romans, was itself an inheritance from Greece — the rose was sacred to Aphrodite, goddess of love, and appears throughout Greek mythology and poetry as the supreme flower of erotic and romantic feeling.
In contemporary Greece and across the Mediterranean — Italy, Spain, Portugal, Croatia — the rose retains this Aphroditic significance, and red roses remain the defining anniversary flower for significant milestones. But other Mediterranean flowers carry their own deep traditions.
The olive blossom, though rarely used in floristry (the olive tree’s tiny white flowers are not showy enough for a bouquet), is the flower of peace, wisdom, and the sacred in Greek tradition, the plant of Athena and the Mediterranean landscape that gave rise to Western civilisation. An anniversary gift that incorporates olive branches or olive blossom — or, in practical terms, a beautiful bottle of olive oil from an ancient grove — carries all of this meaning within it.
The bougainvillea and jasmine of the Greek islands are the flowers of summer evenings, terraces, and the unhurried pleasures of Mediterranean life. Jasmine in particular — the summer jasmine that blooms on whitewashed walls across Greece, Italy, and the South of France — is a flower of sensory pleasure, of the warmth of the evening air, and of the particular happiness of a shared life in a beautiful place.
In Italy, mimosa has become associated with celebration through its connection to International Women’s Day — bunches of yellow mimosa are given on the eighth of March throughout Italy — and its cheerful, fluffy yellow blooms carry associations of feminine strength, solidarity, and the warmth of spring. The sunflower, which features throughout the landscape of the Italian countryside in summer, carries associations of warmth, admiration, and fidelity — the sunflower always turns toward the light, which makes it an apt symbol for a love that consistently chooses its source of warmth and joy.
A Universal Note: The Meaning Lies in the Giving
What emerges from any careful survey of anniversary flowers across world cultures is that the specific flower matters less than the act of choosing with thought and care. A partner who gives marigold garlands because they know their significance in their loved one’s culture, a couple who plants cherry trees to mark each decade of their life together, a person who learns that their partner’s grandmother received jasmine at her own wedding and chooses it for their anniversary — these gestures speak a language of attention and care that transcends any individual symbol.
The flowers themselves are beautiful, ephemeral, and meaningful in ways that differ from one tradition to the next. But the impulse to give them — to say with something living and fragrant that this day, and this person, and this love, matters — is universal. Every culture around the world has found its own flowers for that saying, and in their diversity, those flowers tell the story of what humanity most values: beauty, devotion, resilience, and the renewal of what began on a specific day, in a specific place, and continues to grow.
Quick Reference: Anniversary Flowers by Culture
Western Europe and North America — Red rose (passion and enduring love), lily of the valley (renewed happiness), peony (richness of love grown over time), specific flowers by anniversary year from the Victorian tradition.
Japan — Cherry blossom (the beauty of impermanence), chrysanthemum (longevity and nobility), plum blossom (resilience through hardship), lotus (spiritual depth), peony (good fortune and honour).
China — Peony (riches and honour), lotus (purity emerging from difficulty), chrysanthemum (long life and nobility), orchid (quiet, deep excellence), narcissus (renewal and prosperity).
India — Marigold (auspiciousness and divine blessing), lotus (sacred beauty and spiritual depth), jasmine (love and devotion), tuberose (deep romantic longing), rose (romance in the Mughal tradition).
Persian and Middle Eastern — Damask rose (love in its most literary and spiritual sense), narcissus (watchful devotion), hyacinth (renewal and fragrance), jasmine (the warmth of shared evening life).
Mexico and Latin America — Marigold (love that transcends death), dahlia (strength and the fullness of life in bloom), red rose (romantic passion, given in abundance), bougainvillea (resilient and passionate joy).
West Africa and South Africa — Hibiscus (communal celebration and the sweetness of life), bird of paradise (joyfulness and freedom), protea (resilience, diversity, and transformation).
Korea — Rose (romantic love), azalea (tender, self-sacrificial devotion), rose of Sharon (an eternal love that never fades), peach blossom (longevity and blessing).
Greece and Mediterranean — Rose (Aphroditic love), jasmine (sensory pleasure and the warmth of shared life), mimosa (celebration and warmth of spring), sunflower (fidelity and the choice to turn always toward love).